Germany has made history as the first European Union member state to establish a compassionate access program for psilocybin, marking a watershed moment in the continent's approach to psychedelic medicine. The Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM) has approved the groundbreaking initiative, allowing patients with treatment-resistant depression to access psilocybin therapy in strictly controlled clinical settings.
This landmark decision positions Germany at the forefront of a global renaissance in psychedelic medicine, following extensive clinical research that has demonstrated psilocybin's potential to treat severe mental health conditions where conventional therapies have failed. The approval represents not just a regulatory milestone, but a fundamental shift in how European healthcare systems view the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances.
The program emerges from Germany's robust research infrastructure in psychedelic medicine, particularly the EPIsoDE (Efficacy and Safety of Psilocybin in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression) clinical trial, which has been funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research with an investment of nearly €5 million. This government-backed research has provided the scientific foundation necessary to justify compassionate access for patients who have exhausted traditional treatment options.
Two prestigious institutions will initially administer the program: the Central Institute of Mental Health (CIMH) in Mannheim and the OVID Clinic in Berlin. These facilities were selected for their specialized expertise in psychiatric care and their capacity to provide the intensive, supervised environment required for psilocybin therapy. The selection of these institutions reflects Germany's commitment to maintaining the highest standards of clinical care while pioneering new treatment modalities.
The timing of Germany's approval is particularly significant, coming amid a broader European conversation about drug policy reform and mental health innovation. As EU member states grapple with rising rates of depression and treatment resistance, Germany's proactive approach could serve as a blueprint for other nations considering similar programs. The country's decision builds upon its recent progressive drug policies, including the legalization of cannabis for adult recreational use in April 2024, demonstrating a willingness to challenge traditional approaches to controlled substances when public health benefits are evident.
Program Architecture: A Carefully Controlled Framework for Psychedelic Medicine
The German psilocybin access program operates under a meticulously designed framework that prioritizes patient safety while providing access to potentially life-saving treatment. The program utilizes Filament Health's botanical psilocybin candidate, PEX010, which will be administered by licensed psychiatrists as part of a comprehensive psychiatric care protocol.
The treatment protocol draws directly from the successful EPIsoDE clinical trial methodology, incorporating two dosing sessions of approximately six hours each, spaced six weeks apart. This structured approach has been validated through rigorous clinical testing and represents the gold standard for psilocybin-assisted therapy. Each treatment cycle includes extensive preparatory work and integration sessions, ensuring patients are psychologically prepared for the experience and can meaningfully process their therapeutic journey.
Patient safety remains paramount throughout the program implementation. All treatments take place exclusively on an inpatient basis, providing continuous medical supervision and support. This residential approach allows healthcare providers to monitor patients closely during the acute effects of psilocybin and manage any unexpected reactions. The inpatient requirement also ensures that patients have immediate access to medical intervention if needed, reflecting the program's commitment to responsible implementation.
The program's capacity limitations reflect both the resource-intensive nature of psilocybin therapy and the cautious approach German regulators have taken to this pioneering initiative. Early estimates suggest the program can accommodate roughly 50 patients in its first year, though demand is expected to significantly exceed this capacity. These limitations stem from the specialized staffing requirements, the need for dedicated treatment spaces, and the intensive nature of the therapeutic protocol.
Prescribing authority is strictly limited to qualified psychiatrists who must demonstrate relevant experience with treatment-resistant depression and psychedelic therapy protocols. This requirement ensures that only the most qualified practitioners will oversee psilocybin treatments, maintaining clinical excellence while building expertise in this emerging field. The credentialing process reflects international best practices and draws from successful models in other jurisdictions that have implemented psychedelic medicine programs.
The program operates under a “justified exceptional cases” framework, meaning psilocybin will only be prescribed when conventional treatments have been exhausted and the patient's condition warrants the risks associated with experimental therapy. This approach mirrors the compassionate use programs found in other medical contexts, balancing access to potentially transformative treatments with appropriate clinical caution.
Eligibility and Access: Defining the Path to Treatment
The German psilocybin access program targets a specific and vulnerable patient population: adults diagnosed with treatment-resistant depression who have failed to respond to conventional therapeutic interventions. Treatment-resistant depression affects an estimated 20-30% of individuals with major depressive disorder, representing hundreds of thousands of Germans who have exhausted standard treatment options without achieving meaningful improvement in their condition.
To qualify for psilocybin therapy, patients must demonstrate that they have undergone multiple rounds of conventional treatment without success. This typically includes various antidepressant medications, psychotherapy approaches, and potentially other interventions such as electroconvulsive therapy or transcranial magnetic stimulation. The requirement for documented treatment failure ensures that psilocybin therapy is reserved for those most in need while protecting patients from unnecessary exposure to experimental treatments.
The application process requires comprehensive psychiatric evaluation and documentation of previous treatment attempts. Patients must work with qualified psychiatrists who can assess their suitability for psilocybin therapy and navigate the regulatory requirements for compassionate use approval. This collaborative approach ensures that treatment decisions are made based on thorough clinical assessment rather than patient preference alone.
Geographic accessibility presents a significant challenge, as treatment is currently limited to two specialized facilities in Mannheim and Berlin. Patients from across Germany may need to travel considerable distances and arrange for extended stays to complete the inpatient treatment protocol. This geographic limitation reflects the specialized nature of psilocybin therapy and the need to concentrate expertise and resources in facilities capable of providing optimal care.
The program also requires extensive patient preparation and commitment. Beyond meeting clinical eligibility criteria, patients must be willing and able to engage in the intensive therapeutic process, including preparatory sessions, the dosing experiences themselves, and follow-up integration work. This commitment extends beyond the immediate treatment period, as patients may need ongoing psychiatric care to maintain and build upon therapeutic gains achieved through psilocybin therapy.
Insurance coverage and cost considerations remain significant barriers to access. The program's experimental nature means that health insurance may not cover treatment costs, potentially limiting access to patients with sufficient financial resources. Cost estimates for similar programs internationally suggest that psilocybin therapy could cost €15,000-€20,000 for a complete treatment cycle, creating substantial financial barriers for many patients who could benefit from treatment.
Mental health advocates emphasize that while the program represents a significant advance, its limited scope means that most patients with treatment-resistant depression will continue to rely on conventional approaches. The challenge moving forward will be expanding access while maintaining safety standards and building the clinical infrastructure necessary to serve larger patient populations.
Clinical Foundation: Science-Based Treatment Protocol
The German program's treatment protocol is grounded in robust clinical research, particularly the completed EPIsoDE trial which demonstrated psilocybin's efficacy in treating treatment-resistant depression. This phase II randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study involving 144 patients provided the scientific foundation necessary to justify compassionate access, showing a 17% response rate six weeks after dosing with 25mg of psilocybin.
The therapeutic framework employed in the German program reflects international best practices developed through decades of psychedelic research. Each patient undergoes three preparatory sessions designed to build therapeutic rapport, establish treatment goals, and prepare for the psychedelic experience. This preparation phase is crucial for optimizing therapeutic outcomes and ensuring patients are psychologically ready for the profound experiences that psilocybin can induce.
The dosing sessions themselves represent the core of the therapeutic intervention. Administered in carefully controlled clinical environments, patients receive psilocybin while under continuous medical supervision. The six-hour duration of each session allows for the full pharmacological effects of psilocybin to unfold while ensuring adequate time for processing and initial integration. The use of trained therapeutic staff throughout these sessions provides essential support and guidance during vulnerable moments of the experience.
Following each dosing session, patients participate in four integration sessions where they work with therapists to process their experiences and translate insights into meaningful life changes. This integration phase is considered as important as the dosing sessions themselves, as it helps patients consolidate therapeutic gains and develop practical strategies for maintaining improved mental health. The spacing of sessions six weeks apart allows for adequate integration time while maintaining therapeutic momentum.
The selection of Filament Health's PEX010 as the program's psilocybin formulation reflects careful consideration of product quality and consistency. This botanical psilocybin candidate has undergone extensive testing to ensure purity and potency, addressing regulatory concerns about product standardization that have historically challenged psychedelic medicine development. The use of a standardized product helps ensure consistent dosing and reduces variability between treatment sessions.
Medical supervision protocols during treatment sessions include continuous vital sign monitoring, psychological support, and emergency intervention capabilities. Healthcare providers are trained to recognize and manage potential adverse reactions, from psychological distress to rare medical complications. This comprehensive safety framework has been developed based on decades of psychedelic research and clinical experience from other jurisdictions.
The program's emphasis on set and setting—psychological preparation and environmental factors—reflects fundamental principles of psychedelic therapy. Treatment spaces are designed to be comfortable, safe, and conducive to introspective experiences, with careful attention to lighting, music, and overall ambiance. These environmental considerations can significantly influence therapeutic outcomes and are considered essential components of effective psilocybin therapy.
Political Landscape: Germany's Progressive Drug Policy Evolution
Germany's approval of psilocybin access emerges from a broader transformation in the country's approach to drug policy, reflecting a shift from prohibition-focused strategies toward evidence-based public health interventions. This evolution represents a fundamental reconsideration of how controlled substances can serve therapeutic purposes when properly regulated and administered.
The political foundation for this progressive approach was established with Germany's cannabis legalization in April 2024, which made the country one of the most liberal jurisdictions in Europe regarding cannabis policy. The Cannabis Act demonstrated the government's willingness to challenge traditional drug policy frameworks when evidence supports alternative approaches. This precedent created political space for considering other controlled substances with therapeutic potential.
Federal support for psychedelic research has been instrumental in creating the conditions for compassionate access approval. The German Federal Ministry of Education and Research's investment of nearly €5 million in the EPIsoDE trial represented the first major government funding for psychedelic research by a leading Western nation. This financial commitment signaled official recognition of psychedelic medicine's therapeutic potential and the government's commitment to evidence-based policy development.
Political leadership on mental health issues has provided additional momentum for the program's approval. German officials have increasingly recognized mental health as a critical public health challenge requiring innovative solutions. Professor Gerhard Gründer from the Central Institute of Mental Health noted that “the German government has recognized that people's mental health is one of the most important challenges of our time and that Germany must take a leading role in the development of these therapies in Europe.”
The Social Democratic Party (SPD)-led coalition government has demonstrated particular openness to drug policy reform, viewing harm reduction and medical access as priorities over punitive approaches. This political orientation has created favorable conditions for considering compassionate access programs that might have faced greater resistance under more conservative leadership. The government's approach reflects broader European trends toward evidence-based drug policy and public health-focused interventions.
Regulatory agencies, particularly the Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), have shown pragmatic flexibility in developing frameworks for novel therapeutic approaches. The approval of psilocybin access required creative regulatory solutions that balanced access with safety, demonstrating institutional capacity to adapt traditional frameworks to emerging medical needs. This regulatory innovation could serve as a model for other jurisdictions considering similar programs.
The program's approval also reflects Germany's broader ambitions for European leadership on progressive policy issues. By becoming the first EU member state to establish psilocybin access, Germany positions itself as a policy innovator and could influence broader European approaches to psychedelic medicine. This leadership role aligns with Germany's historical position as a driver of EU policy development across multiple domains.
Opposition voices, while present, have been relatively muted compared to debates surrounding cannabis legalization. The medical framing of psilocybin access, combined with its limitation to severe treatment-resistant cases, has helped build broader political consensus around the program. Conservative critics have focused more on implementation concerns than fundamental opposition to the concept of psychedelic medicine.
Public Health Impact: Addressing Germany's Mental Health Crisis
Germany's psilocybin access program addresses a critical gap in mental health treatment at a time when the country faces rising rates of depression and treatment resistance. The German healthcare system, while comprehensive, has struggled to meet the growing demand for mental health services, with many patients facing long waiting times and limited treatment options when conventional approaches fail.
Treatment-resistant depression represents one of the most challenging aspects of mental health care, affecting hundreds of thousands of Germans who cycle through multiple medications and therapies without achieving remission. Current treatment pathways often involve years of trial-and-error approaches with various antidepressants, psychotherapy modalities, and interventions like electroconvulsive therapy, creating substantial personal and economic costs without guaranteed outcomes.
The economic burden of treatment-resistant depression extends far beyond direct healthcare costs. Patients with persistent depression often experience reduced work productivity, increased disability claims, and higher utilization of general medical services. Studies suggest that every euro invested in psychotherapy yields a threefold return for society, indicating that effective treatments for treatment-resistant depression could generate substantial economic benefits while reducing human suffering.
Germany's mental healthcare infrastructure faces significant capacity constraints that limit access to evidence-based treatments. While every German theoretically has access to insurer-covered psychotherapy, accessing these services remains challenging due to provider shortages and administrative barriers. The introduction of psilocybin therapy, with its intensive but time-limited protocol, could potentially offer more efficient treatment for appropriate patients.
The program's potential for reducing long-term healthcare utilization is particularly significant for treatment-resistant patients who often become high-cost users of the healthcare system. If psilocybin therapy can achieve durable remission for even a subset of these patients, the long-term cost savings could justify expanded program access. International studies suggest that successful psychedelic therapy can produce lasting improvements with minimal ongoing treatment needs.
Public health experts emphasize that the program's immediate impact will be limited by its small scale, but its symbolic importance for legitimizing psychedelic medicine could catalyze broader changes in mental health treatment approaches. The program demonstrates that German healthcare authorities are willing to embrace innovative treatments when supported by adequate evidence, potentially encouraging further research and development in novel therapeutic modalities.
The program also addresses ethical concerns about access to potentially life-saving treatments. For patients with severe, treatment-resistant depression who have exhausted conventional options, psilocybin therapy may represent their best hope for recovery. Denying access to such treatments when evidence supports their efficacy raises questions about healthcare equity and the obligation to provide all available therapeutic options.
Mental health advocacy groups have cautiously welcomed the program while emphasizing the need for expanded access as evidence continues to accumulate. The German Depression League and similar organizations view the program as an important first step but stress that broader systemic changes in mental health care delivery will be necessary to address the full scope of Germany's depression epidemic.
The program's data collection and monitoring components will provide valuable real-world evidence about psilocybin therapy's effectiveness outside controlled clinical trials. This information will be crucial for future policy decisions about expanding access and could influence treatment guidelines for depression care more broadly across Europe.
International Context: Learning from Global Psychedelic Medicine Programs
Germany's psilocybin access program builds upon a growing international movement toward psychedelic medicine integration, drawing lessons from pioneering jurisdictions while adapting frameworks to European regulatory and healthcare contexts. The German model reflects careful study of both successes and challenges in other countries that have implemented similar programs.
Australia represents the most comprehensive national approach to psychedelic medicine regulation, having rescheduled both psilocybin and MDMA for limited clinical uses in July 2023. The Australian model enables psychiatrists to apply for approval to prescribe MDMA for PTSD treatment and psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression, making it the first national jurisdiction in the 21st century to formally recognize these substances as medicines. However, clinical uptake has been slower than anticipated due to barriers including high treatment costs (estimated at $15,000-$23,500 USD), lack of standardized training programs, and requirements for specialized clinical spaces.
Switzerland offers perhaps the most instructive precedent for Germany's approach, having operated a limited access program for psychedelic therapy since 2014. The Swiss model allows approximately 100 physicians to treat patients with MDMA, LSD, or psilocybin under compassionate use provisions, resulting in roughly 1,660 treatments for 723 patients in 2024. Switzerland's decentralized approach empowers individual physicians to make treatment decisions, though it requires federal approval for each patient, creating more administrative burden than Germany's clinic-based model.
Canada's Special Access Program provides another relevant framework, offering access to psychedelic drugs for end-of-life distress, treatment-resistant depression, and PTSD through Health Canada's regulatory pathway established in January 2022. The Canadian model emphasizes end-of-life care applications but has gradually expanded to include other conditions, demonstrating how compassionate access programs can evolve over time. Alberta has gone further, becoming among the first jurisdictions to regulate psilocybin, LSD, MDMA, mescaline, ketamine, and DMT for medicinal purposes.
Oregon's voter-approved psilocybin program, which became operational in January 2023, represents a unique state-level approach that allows supervised adult use for mental health treatment. The Oregon model emphasizes harm reduction and supervised administration rather than strict medical gatekeeping, offering insights into alternative regulatory frameworks. However, the program's non-medical orientation limits its applicability to Germany's healthcare-integrated approach.
Israel has maintained special access pathways for psychedelic medicine that have informed international best practices, particularly around integration protocols and safety monitoring. Israeli research institutions have contributed significantly to the global evidence base supporting psychedelic therapy, providing scientific foundations that support German and other national programs.
The Netherlands occupies a unique position in European psychedelic policy, maintaining legal access to psilocybin truffles while supporting research into therapeutic applications. Dutch research institutions have conducted groundbreaking studies on psilocybin's mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential, contributing to the evidence base that supports Germany's program. The Netherlands' approach demonstrates how existing legal frameworks can accommodate research and limited access without comprehensive regulatory reform.
Key lessons from international programs include the importance of robust training requirements for practitioners, the need for specialized treatment facilities, and the challenges of balancing access with safety oversight. Successful programs typically emphasize thorough patient screening, comprehensive integration support, and ongoing safety monitoring. Cost and accessibility remain persistent challenges across all jurisdictions, with most programs struggling to balance therapeutic access with resource constraints.
Germany's approach incorporates several innovations drawn from international experience, including its emphasis on specialized clinic-based delivery rather than individual physician prescribing, its integration with existing research infrastructure, and its focus on building sustainable expertise rather than rapid program expansion. These design choices reflect lessons learned from early implementation challenges in other jurisdictions.
European Union Implications: Catalyst for Continental Policy Reform
Germany's pioneering approval of psilocybin access carries profound implications for European Union drug policy and could accelerate broader continental shifts toward evidence-based approaches to controlled substances. As the EU's largest economy and most influential member state, Germany's policy innovations often serve as bellwethers for broader European regulatory trends.
The timing of Germany's approval coincides with growing momentum across Europe for psychedelic medicine development. The EU clinical trials database shows 29 studies investigating psychedelics for central nervous system conditions as of April 2024, including 19 trials for psilocybin, 7 for MDMA, and 3 for LSD. This research activity demonstrates substantial scientific and institutional interest in psychedelic therapeutics across European research institutions.
European Union regulatory frameworks provide pathways for expanding access to innovative treatments through mechanisms like the European Medicines Agency's (EMA) centralized authorization procedure. Germany's compassionate access program could provide real-world evidence that supports future applications for broader European approval of psilocybin therapy. The data generated through German clinical use will be particularly valuable for understanding therapy effectiveness in diverse patient populations and healthcare settings.
Several EU member states are actively developing their own psychedelic medicine policies, potentially creating a patchwork of national approaches that could eventually converge into harmonized European standards. The Czech Republic is developing legislation to legalize psilocybin and MDMA for therapeutic use, while Portugal's decriminalization model has created space for therapeutic research. Spain, Belgium, and other member states have active research programs that could translate into policy initiatives.
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) has increasingly focused on therapeutic applications of controlled substances, providing technical expertise that could support broader EU policy development. The agency's research into psychedelic therapy's potential benefits and risks will likely inform future European regulatory approaches and help establish common standards for implementation.
Cross-border healthcare provisions within the EU could potentially allow citizens from other member states to access psilocybin therapy in Germany, though current program limitations and costs make this unlikely in the near term. However, as the program expands and other countries develop their own initiatives, medical tourism for psychedelic therapy could become a significant factor in European healthcare markets.
German pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies developing psychedelic medicines stand to benefit from early regulatory approval and clinical experience, potentially giving them competitive advantages in broader European markets. Companies like Filament Health, whose PEX010 product is being used in the German program, may leverage this experience to seek approvals in other European jurisdictions.
The program's influence on EU drug control policy discussions could extend beyond therapeutic applications to broader questions about proportionate responses to controlled substances. Germany's evidence-based approach to both cannabis legalization and psilocybin access demonstrates alternative frameworks that prioritize public health over punishment, potentially influencing broader European drug policy debates.
European research collaborations in psychedelic medicine are likely to accelerate as Germany's program generates data and clinical experience. The first EU-funded psychedelic medicine trial, testing psilocybin for anxiety and depression in patients with progressive diseases, launched in 2024 and represents growing institutional support for cross-border research initiatives.
Mental health organizations across Europe are closely monitoring Germany's program as a potential model for addressing treatment-resistant depression in their own healthcare systems. The European Psychiatric Association and similar professional organizations are developing position statements on psychedelic medicine that could influence national policy development across member states.
The program also highlights broader questions about European drug scheduling and control frameworks, which were developed decades ago and may require updating to accommodate modern therapeutic applications. Germany's approach demonstrates how national authorities can work within existing international frameworks while pioneering innovative treatment access mechanisms.
Expert Perspectives: Scientific and Clinical Voices on Germany's Breakthrough
The scientific and medical communities have responded to Germany's psilocybin access program with cautious optimism, viewing it as a crucial step toward integrating psychedelic medicine into mainstream healthcare while emphasizing the need for continued research and careful implementation. Leading experts in psychiatry, neuroscience, and psychedelic research have provided diverse perspectives on the program's significance and implications.
Professor Gerhard Gründer from the Central Institute of Mental Health, a key figure in Germany's psychedelic research landscape, emphasizes the government's recognition of mental health as a critical contemporary challenge. “The German government has recognized that people's mental health is one of the most important challenges of our time and that Germany must take a leading role in the development of these therapies in Europe,” Gründer stated, highlighting the political will that enabled the program's approval.
Dr. Henrik Jungaberle, Director of the MIND Foundation, which has been instrumental in advancing psychedelic research in Germany, praised the government's commitment to evidence-based policy development. “The German government was the first leading Western nation that provided a grant for a large clinical study with psychedelics. Now the government has confirmed its commitment to the new field by doubling the budget for this methodically advanced study,” Jungaberle noted, referring to the expanded funding for psychedelic research initiatives.
International psychedelic medicine researchers view Germany's program as a significant validation of decades of scientific work demonstrating psilocybin's therapeutic potential. Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris, whose research at Imperial College London has been foundational to understanding psilocybin's mechanisms of action, sees the German approval as evidence that psychedelic medicine is transitioning from experimental research to clinical application. The program's emphasis on rigorous scientific protocols and safety monitoring reflects the field's commitment to responsible development.
Clinical psychiatrists working with treatment-resistant depression have expressed particular enthusiasm for the program's potential to offer hope to patients who have exhausted conventional options. Dr. Katrin Preller, a leading researcher in psychedelic neuroscience, emphasizes that psilocybin therapy represents a fundamentally different approach to treating depression, potentially addressing underlying neural mechanisms rather than simply managing symptoms. This mechanistic understanding provides confidence that the therapy could offer durable benefits for appropriate patients.
Mental health advocates have welcomed the program while calling for broader systemic changes in depression care. The German Depression League and similar organizations view psilocybin access as an important innovation but stress that addressing Germany's mental health crisis requires comprehensive approaches including expanded access to conventional therapies, reduced waiting times, and improved integration between medical and psychological care.
Pharmaceutical industry representatives see Germany's program as validating the commercial potential of psychedelic medicine while highlighting the challenges of developing sustainable business models. The resource-intensive nature of psilocybin therapy, combined with limited patient populations and regulatory uncertainty, creates complex economic considerations for companies developing psychedelic therapeutics. However, the German approval provides crucial validation for investor and regulatory confidence.
Ethics experts have raised important questions about equity and access, noting that the program's limited capacity and potential high costs could create disparities in treatment availability. Professor Torsten Passie, a prominent German researcher in psychedelic medicine, advocates for ensuring that access considerations include socioeconomic factors to prevent the creation of a two-tiered system where only wealthy patients can access innovative treatments.
Regulatory science experts view Germany's approach as a model for balancing innovation with safety oversight. The program's emphasis on specialized facilities, trained practitioners, and comprehensive safety monitoring demonstrates how regulatory agencies can enable access to experimental treatments while maintaining appropriate protections. This framework could inform regulatory approaches in other jurisdictions considering similar programs.
International policy experts see Germany's program as a catalyst for broader European drug policy reform, potentially accelerating similar initiatives across the continent. The country's combination of scientific rigor, regulatory innovation, and political support creates conditions that other EU member states could adapt to their own healthcare and regulatory contexts.
Neuroscience researchers emphasize the program's potential to generate valuable real-world data about psilocybin therapy's effectiveness and safety outside controlled clinical trial settings. This information will be crucial for understanding how psychedelic therapy translates from research contexts to routine clinical practice and could inform future treatment protocols and training requirements.
Patient advocacy groups have expressed gratitude for expanded treatment options while emphasizing the need for continued expansion of access. Representatives of treatment-resistant depression support networks view the program as offering hope to patients who have lost faith in the healthcare system's ability to help them, though they stress that much work remains to make such treatments broadly accessible to all who could benefit.